Artículos (Análisis Económico y Economía Política)

URI permanente para esta colecciónhttps://hdl.handle.net/11441/11106

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Green Aid and Environmental Quality in Developing Countries: The Role of Donor-Recipient Institutional Differences
(Wiley, 2025) Pinar, Mehmet; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Green aid aims to increase the capacity of countries to mitigate the impacts of climate change by improving energy efficiency and deploying green and renewable energy technologies in developing countries. While various donor and recipient country characteristics for the effectiveness of foreign aid have been examined, the role of donor-recipient institutional quality proximity has not been investigated. This paper analyzes the role of donor-recipient institutional quality proximity for the effectiveness of green aid in improving environmental quality in developing countries using bilateral green aid flows from 29 donors to 97 recipient countries between 2002 and 2018. The findings demonstrate that green aid improves environmental quality; however, the effectiveness of green aid decreases when the donor-recipient institutional quality differences increase. Aid allocation that considers donor-recipient institutional quality differences could enhance the effectiveness of green aid in improving environmental quality.
Convergence in energy self-sufficiency: the role of renewable energy, fossil fuel rents, energy efficiency and gross domestic product per capita
(Pergamon-Elsevier Science LTD, 2025) Pinar, Mehmet; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Increasing energy self-sufficiency and energy security are essential for countries to promote sustainable development. Analyzing convergence in energy self-sufficiency is crucial for designing policies to address energy security challenges. This paper examines convergence in energy self-sufficiency (measured by the ratio of total primary energy production to total primary energy consumption) across 159 countries from 1993 to 2022. The club convergence algorithm is used to assess whether all countries converge in energy self-sufficiency. The findings indicate that there is no overall convergence across all countries, but distinct convergence clubs exist. Additionally, the analysis reveals varying numbers of convergence clubs in energy self-sufficiency across different geographical regions. Furthermore, conditional beta convergence analyses are conducted using system generalized methods of moments (GMM) to identify the key determinants of energy self-sufficiency. A Probit model is also employed to examine the factors that increase the likelihood of belonging to a high-energy selfsufficiency club. The results suggest that countries with higher fossil fuel rents, greater renewable energy production, and improved energy efficiency tend to increase their energy self-sufficiency and belong to the final convergence club with higher energy self-sufficiency.
Effect of temperature on spanish production
(Springer, 2025) Pablo-Romero Gil-Delgado, María del Populo; Sánchez Braza, Antonio; González Jara, Daniel; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Tackling climate change is one of the most important issues facing the world nowadays. Understanding the impact of rising temperatures on vulnerable territories is crucial. The main objective of this study is to analyze the influence of temperature on the on production per person employed in the Spanish provinces and to assess whether the effect is uniform across temperature levels and territories. A panel data econometric analysis of the Spanish provinces is conducted. The analysis is conducted using an extended translog production function that incorporates cooling and heating degree days and their squares as measures of cold and hot temperatures, respectively. The Driscoll and Kraay standard errors estimator and the generalized method of moments are used to account for the cross-sectional dependence and to tackle potential endogeneity. Furthermore, a quantile model is employed to analyze whether temperature variables affect the Spanish provinces differently. The findings show that average temperatures above 22 °C are detrimental to production, while below 15 °C have a positive effect. Moreover, the adverse impact of high temperatures on production becomes more pronounced as temperatures rise. The findings also demonstrate significant variations in the impact of temperature across territory, with the influence of temperature on production varying according to the geographical location of the provinces, and the most productive provinces being most negatively affected by high temperatures. It is considered appropriate to prioritize efforts in areas with higher temperatures, where greater negative impacts are observed, without using economic prosperity as a guideline for not applying adaptation policies.
The sustainable energy development dilemma in European countries: a time-series cluster analysis
(BMC, 2025) Dugo Domínguez, Víctor; Gálvez Ruiz, David; Díaz Cuevas, María del Pilar; Análisis Económico y Economía Política; Estadística e Investigación Operativa; Geografía Física y Análisis Geográfico Regional
Background: Measuring the evolution of countries in various related dimensions is essential for the evaluation of progress and compliance with the set of sustainable development goals. However, the main dilemma lies in how to achieve rapid progress towards sustainability without compromising national and regional stability, equity, or economic viability. The main objective of this paper is to propose a new country classification guide to assess whether the framework can also be used by authorities worldwide to provide a more detailed perspective of the current situation, thereby enabling the detection of problems, the setting of objectives, a better understanding of the results, and the identification of optimal policy actions. Results: The data analysed are from the period 2004–2018 for 30 European countries, and 13 used variables are grouped into three dimensions: economic structure, energy supply policy, and energy consumption. Cluster analysis is carried out in two steps. In the first step, a time-series cluster analysis is performed for each of the three typologies of variables using Dynamic Time Warping and Complete Linkage algorithm. Each country is subsequently assigned a qualitative three-dimensional vector that indicates cluster membership for each typology. This vector is used as input, and the Lin distance and Ward algorithm are applied to group the countries in the final step. Nine final clusters are obtained. Despite the difference in the number of clusters at each dimension, certain geographical and cultural homogeneity can be found. Conclusions: The diversity of energy and environmental performance among European countries underlines the need for concrete policies that integrate the specific socioeconomic, energy and environmental contexts of each country. Strategies implemented so far have proven insufficient to address disparities in economic development, energy dependence and renewable energy uptake, and tailored approaches are essential. These insights provide policy makers with a sound basis for designing informed strategies that balance progress towards sustainability. The implementation of adapted policies can accelerate the energy transition, optimise resources and strengthen lagging regions, fostering a more cohesive and uniform European energy strategy. Future research could apply this methodology to other regions or thematic areas, extending variables and territories to generate global rankings and further explore sustainability challenges.
Foodies on board! Exploring cruiser satisfaction with the culinary experience
(Elsevier, 2025) Castillo Manzano, José I.; Castro Nuño, Mercedes; Pozo Barajas, Rafael del; Análisis Económico y Economía Política; Economía Financiera y Dirección de Operaciones
This study investigates the key determinants of cruiser satisfaction with onboard dining experiences by analyzing over 38,000 electronic reviews using a Generalized Ordered Logit model. Results reveal that while the trend is for mega-ships to increase satisfaction levels, premium and luxury cruise lines (especially those partnered with Michelin-starred chefs) consistently achieve better reviews. Significant positive factors include cabin location (interior), travel group (solo, couples, or family with older children), diverse culinary offerings, and Caribbean itineraries. Conversely, satisfaction tends to decline with repeat cruises, although surcharges for specialty restaurants show no significant effect on overall satisfaction. These findings emphasize what cruisers value: culinary quality, variety, and memorable dining moments, and can help cruise lines to design experiences that not only meet cruisers’ expectations but also create lasting emotional connections, encouraging repeat travel and reinforcing brand trust in an increasingly competitive market. This study’s novel combination of Big Data obtained with web scraping and econometric modeling offers a scalable framework for evaluating gastronomic satisfaction, with practical implications for enhancing onboard service quality and strategic differentiation in cruise tourism. As the cruise industry progresses, integrating sustainability initiatives, personalized dining options, and technology-driven innovations are critical to maintaining high standards and addressing emerging consumer demands.
Determinants of electricity demand in Spain by climatic zones
(Elsevier, 2025) Cansino Muñoz-Repiso, José Manuel; Dugo Domínguez, Víctor; Román Collado, Rocío; Ribbot, Elisset; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Emprendimiento y regímenes de crecimiento regional en España
(Fundación de las Cajas de Ahorros (Funcas), 2025) Troncoso Ponce, David; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Este trabajo analiza la evolución del emprendimiento corporativo en las provincias españolas y su relación con el empleo entre 2000 y 2023. Clasifica las provincias en cuatro regímenes de crecimiento: emprendedor, rutinario, de puerta giratoria y en declive, basados en las tasas de creación de empresas y de crecimiento del empleo, y examina la interacción entre dinamismo empresarial y crecimiento del empleo. El análisis se divide en tres fases: expansión económica (2000-2007), recesión (2008-2015) y recuperación (2016-2023). Los resultados muestran una relación positiva entre la creación de empresas y el crecimiento del empleo durante los periodos de expansión y recuperación, pero una desconexión durante la recesión. Además, se observa mayor dinamismo empresarial en la mitad sur de España y el arco mediterráneo, sugiriendo la necesidad de un análisis más profundo de las causas de estas diferencias territoriales.
Interés por las artes escénicas desde el capital cultural y la educación: el caso español, 2019
(Editorial Universidad Católica de Colombia, 2023) Díaz León, Blas; Martínez Fernández, Ignacio; Palma Martos, Luis Antonio; Análisis Económico y Economía Política; Economía e Historia Económica
Los estudios de participación cultural tienden a concentrar su enfoque en el análisis de las variables socioeconómicas o la disponibilidad de infraestructuras, dejando en un segundo plano variables de carácter idio-sincrático como el interés manifestado o la predisposición a participar. Empleando los datos de la Encuesta de Hábitos y Prácticas Culturales de España 2018-2019, y mediante la modelización con mínimos cuadrados ordinarios (MCO), se busca estudiar los pesos de las va-riables socioeconómicas clásicas, así como las diferentes variables que componen el capital cultural dado su ca-rácter aditivo en el desarrollo del interés. Los principales resultados obtenidos presentan al capital cultural como el componente más determinante en la formación del interés, siendo la lectura en la infancia la que presenta el mayor impacto. Destaca también la posible existencia de transferencia intergeneracional del interés, al presentar un mayor peso entre las variables la participación de los padres que la del propio sujeto durante la infancia.
What is behind the producer GHG emissions footprint of textile and clothing in the EU-27? An environmentally extended multi-regional input-output analysis
(Elsevier, 2025) Yamuza Blanco, Luis; Monsalve, Fabio; Román Collado, Rocío; Sanz Díaz, María Teresa; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
The textile and clothing industry is globally recognized as the fourth highest contributor to environmental pressure, requiring substantial volumes of raw materials and resources from various sectors. Moreover, it contributes approximately 4 % of global greenhouse gas emissions annually. The final producers in this industry bear a portion of the responsibility and have the ability to directly address and mitigate the sustainability issues and environmental impacts that occur throughout their supply chains. Against this background, the article aims to analyse the greenhouse gas emissions footprint of the European Union-27’s final textile and clothing producers from 1995 to 2022. The methodology applied combines an Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input- Output analysis with a producer footprint analysis, utilizing the Exiobase database. These methods enable the tracking of emissions both directly and indirectly generated throughout the production chain of final goods, and the allocation of these emissions to the country of residence of the final producer. The results indicate that the emissions footprint of producers in the European Union-27’s textile and clothing industry decreased by approximately 50 % during the period. However, while the domestic producer footprint saw a reduction of 61 %, the imported emissions decreased by only 27 %. This discrepancy highlights various inefficiencies, demonstrating that importing has a greater emissions impact than domestic production. Additionally, a decoupling analysis is conducted to examine the degree of disassociation between greenhouse gas emissions and the intermediate inputs used throughout the European Union-27’s textile and clothing supply chain. In this respect, some supplier partners have positively contributed to decarbonization, underscoring the need for strategic trade relations.
Exploring biomarkers of regular wine consumption in human urine: Targeted and untargeted metabolomics approaches
(Elsevier, 2025) Pérez-Matute, Patricia; Castillo Manzano, José I.; Yuste Bielsa, Silvia; Íñiguez, María; Motilva, María José; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
The epidemiological assessment of wine consumption usually has been obtained using self-reporting questionnaires. In this study, two metabolomic approaches, targeted and untargeted, were applied to 24-h urine samples from a cohort of La Rioja (Spain) (aged 52–78), comparing moderate and daily wine consumers (20 males and 13 females) without diet intervention, versus non-consumers (8 males and 35 females). Results showed that the nontargeted metabolomics approach has allowed for the annotation of sixteen compounds in 24-h urine samples from regular wine-consumers that were not detected in the urine of non-wine consumers. Additionally, the targeted metabolomics approach showed a wide range of phenol metabolites, mainly hepatic phase-II conjugates, whose concentration was significantly higher in the urine of wine consumers. As a novelty, this study focuses on discovering the main urinary biomarkers of regular wine consumption involving free-living volunteers, without dietary intervention or restrictions that might alter their regular behaviors and lifestyles
Spectroscopic analysis (UV-VIS-NIR) for predictive modeling of macro and micronutrients in grapevine leaves
(Elsevier, 2025) Castillo Manzano, José I.; Rodríguez-Febereiro, M.; Fandiño, M.; Vilanova, M.; Cancela, J.J.; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Assessing nutrient concentrations in grapevines is crucial not only for the overall physiology of the plant but also for the quality of the resulting wine. Accurate determinations are also relevant for enhancing nutrient use efficiency and formulating fertilizer recommendations. Hence, there is a considerable demand for a swift technique to analyze vine organs. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy coupled with chemometric methods emerges as a potent, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly analytical technique for determining nutrient concentrations in plants. The objective of this study is to ascertain the viability of wide range spectrum (190–2600 nm) spectroscopy in providing precise insights into the nutritional status of vines. Our investigation specifically targets on the determination of C, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Na, and Al in vine leaves from different wine growing areas, varieties and harvest years. Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS-R) was employed to construct models for the concentrations of these nutrients based on the reflectance measurements of the leaves. The model was trained using 70 % of the samples, while the remaining 30 % constituted the independent validation. Results from the validation set indicated accurate validation for most nutrients, with determination coefficients (r2 ) of 0.70 for C, 0.72 for N, 0.64 for P, 0.75 for K, 0.84 for Ca, 0.48 for Mg, 0.45 for B, 0.58 for Cu, 0.26 for Fe, 0.82 for Mn, 0.50 for Zn, 0.90 for Na, and 0.69 for Al. The findings revealed that reflectances in the visible (VIS) region of the spectrum played a key role in predicting micronutrients like B, corresponding with photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids). In contrast, reflectances in the near-infrared region (NIR) had a greater impact on macronutrient prediction, particularly for P and Mg, due to their stronger interaction with organic compounds. The ultraviolet (UV) range played a minor role, highlighting the predominant importance of the VIS-NIR regions in spectroscopic analyses. Finally, the results support the potential of this technique for swiftly and non-invasively predicting both macro and micronutrient levels in grapevine plants, and facilitate the fertilization planning using variety-specific reference levels, or precision viticulture adapted to site-specific demands, including spatial intra-plot variability.
La formación histórica de hospitales independientes sevillanos durante el siglo XX y su incorporación a los grandes grupos hospitalarios en el siglo XXI
(2025-01-15) García Cruz, Elena; Pons Pons, Jerònia; Ceballos Hernández, Cristina; Economía Financiera y Dirección de Operaciones; Análisis Económico y Economía Política; Economía e Historia Económica; European Commission (EC). Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER); Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España
A partir de la primera mitad del siglo xx, muchos médicos especialistas crearon pequeñas clínicas y hospitales en las principales ciudades españolas, entre ellas Sevilla, para atender la demanda de las clases adineradas. El objetivo de este artículo es el estudio del proceso mediante el cual estas pequeñas empresas hospitalarias independientes fueron creciendo hasta ser absorbidas a finales del siglo xx por grandes grupos hospitalarios en manos del capital financiero. Para entender el proceso de forma histórica, el estudio se centra en la oferta de empresas hospitalarias privadas creadas en Sevilla y su integración final en grupos hospitalarios nacionales.
Dynamic capabilities, preservation of socioemotional wealth, and family firm performance
(Elsevier España, 2025-02-10) Hernández Perlines, Felipe; Araya Castillo, Luis; Castro Nuño, Mercedes; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
This study examines the performance of family businesses through the theoretical lenses of dynamic capabilities and socioemotional wealth. A conceptual model is proposed, in which socioemotional wealth moderates the relationship between dynamic capabilities and family firm performance. The research employs partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), a second-generation multivariate analysis technique, to analyze data and test hypotheses. The findings reveal that dynamic capabilities positively influence family firm performance, with innovation emerging as the most impactful dynamic capability. Additionally, socioemotional wealth not only directly enhances performance but also acts as a moderator, strengthening the relationship between dynamic capabilities and performance. This study makes two key contributions. First, it advances the understanding of how dynamic capabilities and socioemotional wealth shape family firm performance. Second, it underscores the pivotal role of socioemotional wealth in amplifying the effects of dynamic capabilities on performance. These insights have significant practical implications for family firms, emphasizing the importance of strategically managing both dynamic capabilities and socioemotional wealth to drive performance and ensure long-term sustainability
¿Hasta qué punto es sostenible el sistema de pensiones de la mayor economía de América Latina: Brasil?
(Laborum, 2024) Andrade de Souza, Poema Isis; Sánchez-Rivas García, Javier; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Este artículo investigó las condiciones de sostenibilidad del sistema de pensiones en Brasil a través de un análisis descriptivo de datos recientes divulgados por los organismos oficiales del país. Se trata de una cuestión de extrema importancia en el mundo, ya que la esperanza de vida está aumentando en la sociedad y es esencial garantizar un nivel adecuado de ingresos a los trabajadores cuando llegan a la vejez o a cualquier circunstancia que les impida trabajar, con el fin de satisfacer las necesidades sociales básicas. De este modo, se constató que en Brasil existe una tendencia al envejecimiento de la población, con un aumento significativo del número de prestaciones de la Seguridad Social, mientras que la recaudación fiscal sigue creciendo a un ritmo muy bajo en el país. Este escenario tiene en cuenta la seguridad social de los trabajadores del sector privado (RGPS), del sector público (RPPS) y de los militares. Por lo tanto, se concluye que es necesario pensar en estrategias para aumentar la recaudación del sistema de seguridad social, en lo que puede influir la mejora del crecimiento económico, la reducción de la informalidad y el aumento del empleo.
Assessing the impacts of social norms on low-carbon mobility options
(Elsevier, 2022-02-03) Mundaca, Luis; Román Collado, Rocío; Cansino Muñoz-Repiso, José Manuel; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Policymakers and scientists are paying increasing attention to how social norms can promote pro-environmental behaviour and sustainable energy use. We contribute to this field by experimenting with and assessing the impacts of social norms on low-carbon mobility options. Taking Sweden as a case study, we develop two complementary randomised controlled experiments to: 1) analyse the role of social norms in promoting the adoption of car sharing services (CSS) via descriptive and injunctive norms (N = 720); and 2) investigate potential crowd out effects when injunctive norms are used to promote a low-carbon transport hierarchy (N = 730). First-order effects show that social norms have a positive but marginal impact on the willingness to adopt CSS, and only injunctive norms have the potential to steer behaviour in the desired direction. Results also suggest that concerns about potential substitution effects between low-carbon transport options and CSS are not valid. With due limitations, our findings have various implications for policymaking, notably that for social norms to be effective, other policy instruments are critically needed. Of particular importance are the environmental effectiveness of CSS and complementarities between public transport and active mobility (i.e. walking and cycling).
The role of energy efficiency in assessing the progress towards the EU energy efficiency targets of 2020: evidence from the European productive sectors
(Elsevier, 2021-07-01) Román Collado, Rocío; Economidou, Marina; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Energy efficiency is considered to be one of the most reliable ways of addressing some of the most pressing global challenges, such as energy independence and the fight against the negative effects of climate change. It is widely recognised that the EU path towards decarbonisation has to be accompanied by energy efficiency improvements. Focusing on the EU28 from the year 2000 onwards, this analysis aims at identifying the main driving factors behind the energy consumption changes at the global and sectoral level. Concretely, our focus on the productive sectors (responsible for 41% of total consumption) is due to the importance that these sectors have in reaching the overall EU targets. The novelty of this paper is that index decomposition analysis (concretely, LMDI-I) is applied considering: i) the alternative effects to the traditional ones; ii) different degrees of disaggregation and iii) new methodological approaches according to the most recent research literature on this topic. The results suggest that there have been important energy efficiency gains during the period studied. Without these gains the progress achieved towards the EU energy efficiency targets would have been difficult to attain. Despite this, the physical-based analysis shows that the energy efficiency gains are of a lower magnitude compared to the monetary-based analysis. The results provide some energy policy recommendations related to the effectiveness of past energy efficiency measures and shed light on key sectors for which there is still room for improvement.
The impacts of environmental collaboration on the environmental performance of agri-food supply chains: a mediation-moderation analysis of external pressures
(Taylor & Francis, 2024-01-30) Werneck Barbosa, Marcelo; Cansino Muñoz-Repiso, José Manuel; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
Although researchers have investigated the relationship between inter-organisational collaboration and ﬁrm performance, there is scatteredevidence on the relationship between environmental collaboration andenvironmental performance in agri-food supply chains. This studyassesses the eﬀects of environmental collaboration on ﬁve dimensions ofenvironmental performance (greenhouse gas emissions management,energy management, food waste management, food safety management,and water footprint management) in agri-food supply chains, particularlywhen mediated and moderated by customer and regulatory pressures.This study used a survey of Chilean agri-food companies. The data wereanalyzed using partial least squares structural equation modelling. Wefound that environmental collaboration positively inﬂuences all ﬁvedimensions of environmental performance and that customer andregulatory pressures mediate this relationship. The dimension mostaﬀected by environmental collaboration was water footprintmanagement. Finally, we provide recommendations for improving theenvironmental performance of companies in agri-food supply chainsthrough collaboration.
Key effects contributing to changes in energy imports in the EU-27 between 2000 and 2020: A decomposition analysis based on the Sankey diagram
(Elsevier, 2024-11-02) Román Collado, Rocío; Casado Ruiz, Virginia; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
The aim of this paper is to analyse the key effects contributing to changes in energy imports in the European Union (EU-27) in the period 2000–2020. Using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI), the analysis examines the effect of changes in six factors—energy structure, energy dependence, energy transformation efficiency, energy yield after transformation, energy efficiency and activity—on imports of oil, natural gas and other sources of energy. The results of the analysis reveal that the decarbonisation process has fostered the abandonment of the most polluting fossil fuel sources; however, there has been an increase in energy dependence on less polluting sources that are not produced domestically. In contrast, there has been an opportunity for change through improved energy efficiency, which has made it possible to reduce energy requirements per unit produced. In short, in order to achieve a sustainable and secure energy future, it is crucial to implement policies and actions that promote both the diversification of the energy mix—particularly renewable energies—and efficiency in consumption. Doing so will enable countries to move towards true decarbonisation and minimise vulnerability in their energy supply.
Cruising challenging seas: 'how was your experience?'
(Routledge, 2024-08-07) Castillo Manzano, José I.; Castro Nuño, Mercedes; Pozo Barajas, Rafael del; Análisis Económico y Economía Política; Economía Financiera y Dirección de Operaciones
After a text-mining process analyzing over 204,710 semantic cruise reviews on social media for the period 2000-2024, this paper examines how cruisers’ satisfaction and emotions evolved pre-, during-, and post-COVID. Applying a novel methodological mix of sentiment analysis and econometric models, the results show that cruisers’ global satisfaction has increased, possibly due to a loyalty bias among cruise enthusiasts. The experience improved regarding specific issues such as ship size, premium services, timely post-cruise reviews, particular destinations, and cruise crew.
Implementing the Circular Economy in the European Union and Spain: Links to the Low-Carbon Transition
(MDPI, 2024-10-22) Pablo-Romero Gil-Delgado, María del Populo; Sánchez-Braza, Antonio; Torreblanca, Cristóbal; Análisis Económico y Economía Política
This paper reviews and analyzes the process of the implementation of the circular economy in the European Union (EU) and Spain, and its links to the low-carbon transition. The EU implementation of the circular economy went through several stages. Since the adoption of the first action plan in 1993, the links between the circular economy and carbon transition goals have become intertwined. Recently, the EU approved the framework of new monitoring measures and indicators for the circular economy. The adopted actions have involved the adaptation of European legislation at the national level. Spain has participated in this process since 2017, when the Circular Economy Pact was signed. The subsequent approval of the Spanish Strategy for a Circular Economy in 2020 was developed, considering a close relationship between decarbonization and the circular economy. Lately, the circular economy implementation has been strengthened with the strategic project for economic recovery and transformation, linked to the recovery of COVID-19, and the roadmap for the sustainable management of mineral raw materials, with both documents including actions directly related to transforming the energy system. Data show that Spain has made significant improvements in the circular economy transition. However, Spain’s vulnerability to externalities is greater than that of the EU as a whole.

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