Artículos (Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura)

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From Physical Aggression to Verbal Behavior: Language Evolution and Self-Domestication Feedback Loop
(Frontiers Media, 2019-12-18) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Progovac, Ljiljana; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Literatura Española e Hispanoamericana; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
We propose that human self-domestication favored the emergence of a less aggressive phenotype in our species, more precisely phenotype prone to replace (reactive) physical aggression with verbal aggression. In turn, the (gradual) transition to verbal aggression and to more sophisticated forms of verbal behavior favored self-domestication, with the two processes engaged in a mutually reinforcing feedback loop, considering that verbal behavior entails not only less violence and better survival but also more opportunities to interact longer and socialize with more conspecifics, ultimately enabling the emergence of more complex forms of language. Whereas in the case of self-domestication, sexual selection has been proposed to work against physical aggression traits, in the case of verbal insult, the selection has been proposed to work in favor of verbal aggression. The tension between these two seemingly opposing forces gets resolved/alleviated by a tendency to replace physical aggression with verbal aggression and with verbal behavior more generally. This also helps solve the paradox of the Self-Domestication Hypothesis regarding aggression, more precisely why aggression in humans has been reduced only when it comes to reactive aggression, but not when it comes to proactive aggression, the latter exhibiting an increase in the advent of modern language. We postulate that this feedback loop was particularly important during the time period arguably between 200 and 50 kya, when humans were not fully modern, neither in terms of their skull/brain morphology and their behavior/culture nor in terms of their self-domestication. The novelty of our approach lies in (1) giving an active role to early forms of language in interacting with self-domestication processes; (2) providing specific linguistic details and functions of this early stage of grammar (including insult and humor); (3) supplying neurobiological, ontogenetic, and clinical evidence of a link between (reactive) aggression and (reactive) verbal behavior; (4) identifying proxies of the earlier stages in evolution among cognitive disorders; and (5) identifying specific points of contact and mutual reinforcement between these two processes (self-domestication and early language evolution), including reduction in physical aggression and stress/tension, as well as sexual selection.
Robust Candidates for Language Development and Evolution Are Significantly Dysregulated in the Blood of People With Williams Syndrome
(Frontiers Media, 2019-03-26) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Kimura, Ryo; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Williams syndrome (WS) is a clinical condition, involving cognitive deficits and an uneven language profile, which has been the object of intense inquiry over the last decades. Although WS results from the hemideletion of around two dozen genes in chromosome 7, no gene has yet been probed to account for, or contribute significantly to, the language problems exhibited by the affected people. In this paper we have relied on gene expression profiles in the peripheral blood of WS patients obtained by microarray analysis and show that several robust candidates for language disorders and/or for language evolution in the species, all of them located outside the hemideleted region, are up- or downregulated in the blood of subjects with WS. Most of these genes play a role in the development and function of brain areas involved in language processing, which exhibit structural and functional anomalies in people with this condition. Overall, these genes emerge as robust candidates for language dysfunction in WS.
El verso libre en Blas de Otero: libertad y teoría poética
(UNED, 2022-01-20) Moreno Escamilla, Ezequiel; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM376: Teoría Lingüístico-Literaria
El uso del verso libre en la obra del poeta social Blas de Otero (1916-1979) es decisivo en su quehacer literario por cuanto supone el vehículo idóneo para conseguir una palabra más popular y llana una vez se abandona la corriente existencialista de sus primeros libros. Sin embargo, tras este giro formal y temático, el autor comienza una nueva fase poética que, queriendo reunir el espacio individual y el de la inmensa mayoría, sea capaz de representar la realidad que circunda al poeta, la vida, que acabará conformando un concepto determinante. Con este propósito, la liberación progresiva de su escritura, que desciende incluso a la práctica de la prosa, halla en el versolibrismo su expresión definitiva. Aunque no se logre de forma sistemática un verso libre ajeno a la métrica tradicional, la obra final de Otero (1968-1977) está imbuida de los beneficios teóricos, prácticos y expresivos de esta forma poética.
La reformulación discursiva entre lo oral y lo escrito: una aproximación teórica y experimental
(Universidad de Almería, 2013) López Serena, Araceli; Loureda Lamas, Óscar; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Junta de Andalucía; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM134: El Español Hablado en Andalucía / Estudios Históricos de Análisis del Discurso
Este trabajo analiza los procesos de formulación y reformulación discursivas (es decir, las (re)formulaciones vinculadas exclusivamente con la labor de enunciación y exentas, por tanto, de casi todo valor semántico) en el marco de un modelo de lingüística del texto que permite articular de modo unificado los distintos hechos adscritos a la reformulación, para integrar su pluralidad tipológica en un modelo multidimensional. Las consideraciones teóricas en que se apoya nuestra concepción de la reformulación discursiva se someten a un examen experimental, cuyos resultados respaldan nuestra convicción de que la reformulación discursiva, más característica de la oralidad concepcional que de la escrituralidad, es cuantitativa y cualitativamente distinta a la reformulación semántico-pragmática, en la que hasta ahora se ha concentrado mayoritariamente la bibliografía especializada, de manera que su estudio precisa de procedimientos de análisis y conceptos teóricos ligeramente diferentes a los ya sancionados por el estudio de los textos escritos.
El concepto de ‘español coloquial’: vacilación terminológica e indefinición del objeto de estudio
(Universidad de Almería, 2007) López Serena, Araceli; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM134: El Español Hablado en Andalucía / Estudios Históricos de Análisis del Discurso
Léxico juvenil y neologismos de la generación Z
(2023-11-14) Fajardo Carmona, Lucía; García Platero, Juan Manuel; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura
El presente trabajo analiza una compilación de piezas léxicas consideradas neologismos actualmente, estas aparecen divididas en cinco ámbitos distintos: videojuegos, redes sociales e internet, batallas de gallos o freestyle, kpop y series y películas. El objetivo consiste en estudiar y analizar el uso de estas unidades léxicas en cuatro generaciones distintas. Previamente, se presenta un marco teórico que pretende definir conceptos claves y mostrar de manera pormenorizada algunos neologismos y usos neológicos correspondientes a las tres generaciones anteriores a la generación Z. El estudio se lleva a cabo a través de tablas de porcentajes, de gráficas de barras y gráficas circulares para, finalmente, cerrar el análisis con unas conclusiones.
Estrategias argumentativas en aprendientes de ELE con diferentes lenguas maternas
(Ediciones Complutenses, 2024-12-13) Fuentes Rodríguez, Catalina; Casteele, An Vande; Pihler, Barbara; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Agencia Estatal de Investigación. España; Unión Europea. Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER); Universidad de Sevilla. HUM659: Argumentación y Persuasión en Lingüística
La enseñanza de los aspectos procedimentales de una segunda lengua requiere una comprensión profunda del comportamiento de los aprendientes y de los recursos lingüísticos que emplean en diferentes niveles de competencia. Las variaciones en el significado procedimental entre lenguas añaden una capa adicional de complejidad al proceso de aprendizaje, destacando los desafíos que afrontan los estudiantes al manejar las operaciones inferenciales. Para abordar esta cuestión, hemos utilizado el corpus de español como lengua extranjera (ELE) hablado, PRACOMUL, que se basa en conversaciones reales de hablantes de diversas nacionalidades y lenguas maternas. A partir de esta base de datos, hemos analizado el empleo de diferentes conectores y operadores argumentativos, apoyándonos en los principios de la lingüística pragmática de Fuentes Rodríguez (2017 [2000]) y la teoría de la argumentación en la lengua de Anscombre y Ducrot (1983).
Metanálisis acerca de las investigaciones sobre comunicación política en las redes sociales en España e Hispanoamérica
(Ediciones Complutense, 2024-12-10) Mancera Rueda, Ana; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Unión Europea. Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER); Universidad de Sevilla. HUM927: Investigación en Humanidades Digitales y Español de América
El propósito de este artículo es trazar un mapa lo más preciso posible de la investigación científica de la última década acerca de la comunicación política en las redes sociales en España e Hispanoamérica. Para ello llevaremos a cabo un metanálisis, a partir de una muestra de 515 trabajos académicos sobre este campo, publicados entre 2014 y 2024, que han sido recogidos en las bases de datos Web of Science, Scopus y Dialnet. Con ello pretendemos contribuir al debate acerca de las ventajas y los retos que el ecosistema digital supone para la comunicación entre los políticos o las instituciones gubernamentales, y los ciudadanos.
Human-specific changes in two functional enhancers of FOXP2
(Cellular and Molecular Biology, 2022-11-30) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Torres-Ruiz, Raúl; Gelabert, Pere; Lalueza-Fox, Carles; Rodríguez-Perales, Sandra; García-Bellido, Paloma; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
FOXP2 is a gene involved in language development and function. Neanderthals and humans share the same coding region of the gene, although the formers are thought to have exhibited less sophisticated language abilities. In this paper, we report on several human-specific changes in two functional enhancers of FOXP2. Two of these variants are located within the binding sites for the transcription factors POLR2A and SMARCC1, respectively. Interestingly, SMARCC1 is involved in brain development and vitamin D metabolism. We hypothesize that the human specific change in this position might have resulted in a different regulation pattern of FOXP2 expression in our species compared to extinct hominins, with a potential impact on our language abilities.
Toward an evolutionary account of the changes in the human pitch vocal system
(2023-10-19) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
The gradual coevolution of syntactic combinatorics and categorization under the effects of human self-domestication: a proposal
(Springer Nature, 2023-06-12) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Hoshi, Koji; Progovac, Ljiljana; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
The gradual emergence of syntax has been claimed to be engaged in a feedback loop with Human Self-Domestication (HSD), both processes resulting from, and contributing to, enhanced connectivity in selected cortico-striatal networks, which is the mechanism for attenuating reactive aggression, the hallmark of HSD, but also the mechanism of cross-modality, relevant for syntax. Here, we aim to bridge the gap between these brain changes and further changes facilitated by the gradual complexification of grammars. We propose that increased cross-modality would have enabled and supported, more specifically, a feedback loop between categorization abilities relevant for vocabulary building and the gradual emergence of syntactic structure, including Merge. In brief, an enhanced categorization ability not only brings about more distinct categories, but also a critical number of tokens in each category necessary for Merge to take off in a systematic and productive fashion; in turn, the benefits of expressive capabilities brought about by productive Merge encourage more items to be categorized, and more categories to be formed, thus further potentiating categorization abilities, and with it, syntax again. We support our hypothesis with evidence from the domains of language development and animal communication, but also from biology, neuroscience, paleoanthropology, and clinical linguistics.
The genomic landscape of mammal domestication might be orchestrated by selected transcription factors regulating brain and craniofacial development
(Springer Nature, 2023-08-08) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Uriagereka, Juan; Nataf, Serge; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Domestication transforms once wild animals into tamed animals that can be then exploited by humans. The process entails modifications in the body, cognition, and behavior that are essentially driven by differences in gene expression patterns. Although genetic and epigenetic mechanisms were shown to underlie such differences, less is known about the role exerted by trans-regulatory molecules, notably transcription factors (TFs) in domestication. In this paper, we conducted extensive in silico analyses aimed to clarify the TF landscape of mammal domestication. We first searched the literature, so as to establish a large list of genes selected with domestication in mammals. From this list, we selected genes experimentally demonstrated to exhibit TF functions. We also considered TFs displaying a statistically significant number of targets among the entire list of (domestication) selected genes. This workflow allowed us to identify 5 candidate TFs (SOX2, KLF4, MITF, NR3C1, NR3C2) that were further assessed in terms of biochemical and functional properties. We found that such TFs-of-interest related to mammal domestication are all significantly involved in the development of the brain and the craniofacial region, as well as the immune response and lipid metabolism. A ranking strategy, essentially based on a survey of protein-protein interactions datasets, allowed us to identify SOX2 as the main candidate TF involved in domestication-associated evolutionary changes. These findings should help to clarify the molecular mechanics of domestication and are of interest for future studies aimed to understand the behavioral and cognitive changes associated to domestication.
The (Co)Evolution of Language and Music Under Human Self-Domestication
(Springer Nature, 2023-04-25) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Nikolsky, Aleksey; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Together with language, music is perhaps the most distinctive behavioral trait of the human species. Different hypotheses have been proposed to explain why only humans perform music and how this ability might have evolved in our species. In this paper, we advance a new model of music evolution that builds on the self-domestication view of human evolution, according to which the human phenotype is, at least in part, the outcome of a process similar to domestication in other mammals, triggered by the reduction in reactive aggression responses to environmental changes. We specifically argue that self-domestication can account for some of the cognitive changes, and particularly for the behaviors conducive to the complexification of music through a cultural mechanism. We hypothesize four stages in the evolution of music under self-domestication forces: (1) collective protomusic; (2) private, timbre-oriented music; (3) small-group, pitch-oriented music; and (4) collective, tonally organized music. This line of development encompasses the worldwide diversity of music types and genres and parallels what has been hypothesized for languages. Overall, music diversity might have emerged in a gradual fashion under the effects of the enhanced cultural niche construction as shaped by the progressive decrease in reactive (i.e., impulsive, triggered by fear or anger) aggression and the increase in proactive (i.e., premeditated, goal-directed) aggression.
Ruptura métrica y expresión de la realidad: La poesía de Blas de Otero en los años sesenta
(Universidad de Sevilla, 2024-02-15) Moreno Escamilla, Ezequiel; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM376: Teoría Lingüístico-Literaria
Tras sus conocidas etapas existencial y social, se aprecia en la obra del poeta vasco Blas de Otero (1916-1979) un nuevo tipo de poesía que ocupa la última parte de su producción, entre mediados de los años sesenta y finales de los setenta. Esta etapa final se caracteriza por la novedad de las formas y los temas, con los que el autor no duda en experimentar de forma vanguardista para conseguir una palabra más libre. Más allá de la transición a una poesía social, y aunque no se abandone nunca el compromiso político, la métrica de estos años resulta un elemento acorde al mundo cambiante que se pretende representar y dar vida a través de la palabra. En nuestra opinión, esto se debe principalmente a la teoría poética del autor, para quien la vida, como categoría estético-literaria, fue siempre lo más importante y lo que hay que defender.
En torno al lenguaje inclusivo en la docencia universitaria
(Universitat de València, 2023-12-03) Sevo, Sonja; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura
El lenguaje desempeña un papel crucial en la formación de los roles de género y puede tener un impacto significativo en el proceso de educación de los estudiantes. Como sabemos, el lenguaje no es simplemente un espejo de las normas y valores culturales, sino que también actúa como un amplificador, perpetuando estereotipos y actitudes de género. Las palabras y expresiones que empleamos pueden reforzar la noción de que ciertas actividades, profesiones o comportamientos están reservados exclusivamente para uno u otro género. Por lo tanto, nuestro objetivo principal es analizar las ramificaciones del uso del lenguaje discriminatorio en el entorno educativo y, al mismo tiempo, destacar cómo la adopción del lenguaje inclusivo y no sexista en las aulas puede contribuir a la creación de un ambiente de aprendizaje más igualitario y seguro. Un aspecto crucial radica en impulsar la reflexión crítica entre los estudiantes acerca de las implicaciones de género en el lenguaje y su relación con el proceso de aprendizaje. Esto puede ayudar a que los estudiantes sean más conscientes de cómo las palabras pueden limitar o expandir sus oportunidades, así como su percepción de lo que es apropiado para su género. Además, al promover un uso consciente y equitativo del lenguaje en el aula, estamos sentando las bases para una sociedad más justa y equitativa en el futuro.
Elephants as an animal model for self-domestication
(PNAS, 2023-04-03) Raviv, Limor; Jacobson, Sarah L.; Plotnik, Joshua M.; Bowman, Jacob; Lynch, Vincent; Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Humans are unique in their sophisticated culture and societal structures, their complex languages, and their extensive tool use. According to the human self-domestication hypothesis, this unique set of traits may be the result of an evolutionary process of self-induced domestication, in which humans evolved to be less aggressive and more cooperative. However, the only other species that has been argued to be self-domesticated besides humans so far is bonobos, resulting in a narrow scope for investigating this theory limited to the primate order. Here, we propose an animal model for studying self-domestication: the elephant. First, we support our hypothesis with an extensive cross-species comparison, which suggests that elephants indeed exhibit many of the features associated with self-domestication (e.g., reduced aggression, increased prosociality, extended juvenile period, increased playfulness, socially regulated cortisol levels, and complex vocal behavior). Next, we present genetic evidence to reinforce our proposal, showing that genes positively selected in elephants are enriched in pathways associated with domestication traits and include several candidate genes previously associated with domestication. We also discuss several explanations for what may have triggered a self-domestication process in the elephant lineage. Our findings support the idea that elephants, like humans and bonobos, may be self-domesticated. Since the most recent common ancestor of humans and elephants is likely the most recent common ancestor of all placental mammals, our findings have important implications for convergent evolution beyond the primate taxa, and constitute an important advance toward understanding how and why self-domestication shaped humans’ unique cultural niche.
Análisis del vocativo en los diálogos literarios del siglo XIV: Estudio contrastivo del "Libro del Cauallero Zifar" y del "Libro de Buen Amor"
(Universitat de Barcelona, 2023-12-30) Jiménez Sánchez, Daniel; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM134: El Español Hablado en Andalucía / Estudios Históricos de Análisis del Discurso
El análisis del progresivo cambio sintáctico y pragmático en la narrativa es fundamental para comprender la constitución del español moderno que hablamos hoy. Concretamente, las secuencias de diálogo en las obras literarias son uno de los medios fundamentales para estudiar la oralidad pasada, pues pueden suponer, en ocasiones, una representación del habla coloquial. Este trabajo abarcará el estudio de uno de los más representativos fenómenos lingüísticos que forman parte del plano dialogal, el vocativo, tomando como objeto de estudio dos obras literarias del siglo XIV: Libro del Cauallero Zifar y el Libro de Buen Amor, ambas de reconocida importancia para la literatura española. En este trabajo se analizarán las funciones del vocativo a partir de su forma, pretendiendo así arrojar luz acerca del funcionamiento de las diferentes estrategias comunicativas de los interlocutores del diálogo y del comportamiento lingüístico de los personajes dentro de las obras literarias analizadas.
An evolutionary account of impairment of self in cognitive disorders
(Springer Nature, 2022-09-30) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Adornetti, I.; Ferretti, Francesco; Progovac, Ljiljana; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Recent research has proposed that certain aspects of psychosis, as experienced in, e.g., schizophrenia (SCZ), but also aspects of other cognitive conditions, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and synesthesia, can be related to a shattered sense of the notion of self. In this paper, our goal is to show that altered processing of self can be attributed to an abnormal functioning of cortico-striatal brain networks supporting, among other, one key human distinctive cognitive ability, namely crossmodality, which plays multiple roles in human cognition and language. Specifically, our hypothesis is that this cognitive mechanism sheds light both on some basic aspects of the minimal self and on some aspects related to higher forms of self, such as the narrative self. We further link the atypical functioning in these conditions to some recent evolutionary changes in our species, specifically, an atypical presentation of human self-domestication (HSD) features. In doing so, we also lean on previous work concerning the link between cognitive disorders and language evolution under the effects of HSD. We further show that this approach can unify both linguistic and non-linguistic symptoms of these conditions through deficits in the notion of self. Our considerations provide further support for the hypothesis that SCZ and ASD are diametrically opposed cognitive conditions, as well for the hypothesis that their etiology is associated with recent human evolution, leading to a deeper understanding of the causes and symptoms of these disorders, and providing new cues, which can be used for an earlier and more accurate diagnostics.
Abnormal features of human self-domestication in bipolardisorder
(Wiley, 2023-04-14) Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Hansen, Ethan; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICIN). España; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe mental condition characterized by episodes of elevated mood and depression. Being a heritable condition, it features a complex genetic architecture, although it is not still clear how genes contribute to the onset and course of the disease. In this paper, we adopted an evolutionary-genomic approach to this condition, focusing on changes occurred during human evolution as a source of our distinctive cognitive and behavioural phenotype. We show clinical evidence that the BD phenotype can be construed as an abnormal presentation of the human self-domestication phenotype. We further demonstrate that candidate genes for BD significantly overlap with candidates for mammal domestication and that this common set of genes is enriched in functions that are important for the BD phenotype, especially neurotransmitter homeostasis. Finally, we show that candidates for domestication are differentially expressed in brain regions involved in BD pathology, particularly, the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, which have been subject to recent changes in our species. Overall, this link between human self-domestication and BD should facilitate a better understanding of the BD etiopathology.
A comparison of basic color terms in Mandarin and Spanish
(Wiley, 2023-06-27) Xu, Mingshan; Zhu, Jingtao; Benítez Burraco, Antonio; Universidad de Sevilla. Departamento de Lengua Española, Lingüística y Teoría de la Literatura; Universidad de Sevilla. HUM972: Biolingüística
Basic perceptual abilities are universal, and most people can distinguish between millions of distinct shades. However, languages differ in the set of basic color terms (BCTs) they have. Despite numerous prior studies, the exact number of BCTs in Mandarin (Sino-Tibetan) and Spanish (Indo-European) is still debated. In Mandarin, this number varies from 6 to 11, whereas in Spanish there are about 11 or 12 BCTs. Additionally, differences between these two languages can be expected with regard to the differing usage of BCTs in reference to color, as well as the naming strategies used for specifying references. To clarify this, we recruited a group of Mainland Mandarin speakers and a group of Castilian Spanish speakers and assessed them in two related tasks: the list task, in which participants were asked to write down as many color names as they could recall; and the color-naming task, in which they were asked to name color chips from the Munsell color chart that were presented randomly. Our results suggest that Mandarin has nine BCTs, while Spanish has 12 BCTs. Furthermore, we found that Mandarin speakers use more modified terms and compounds to achieve precise color reference, whereas Spanish speakers rely more on monomorphemic non-basic terms. Finally, we observed that Mandarin speakers use some colors (gray, blue, and purple) less consistently; although, the color space is partitioned similarly by these two languages. Our results reinforce the view that there are universal constraints on color naming that are compatible with subtle cross-cultural differences in how colors are used.

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